Forms and Determinants of R&D Collaborations: New Evidence on French Data

The aim of this paper is to explore the heterogeneity in R&D collaborations and of their determinants and motives. Using a recent French survey on research and innovation relations, we first show the heterogeneity of such relations thanks to a typology of their characteristics: their nature (common research, sub-contracting, multi-partnership, management of a common structure), organizational arrangement (contract, specific investments), duration and type of research (market-oriented vs. research-oriented). Five categories of collaborations are obtained from different combinations of these relational characteristics. Using a multinomial logit estimation (and testing for the IIA assumption), we then try to explain how this diversity of partnerships is related to a broad set of explanatory variables (economic rationale for the cooperation, knowledge spillovers, appropriability conditions and partners’ individual characteristics). Thanks to this original approach, we have obtained new results on R&D cooperation motives.R&D collaboration; heterogeneity; spillovers; organizational arrangements

Spillovers diffusion inside networks of cooperation: the role of temporary geographical and organisational proximities.

The objective of this article is to examine the diffusion of spillovers within technological cooperation. More precisely, we shall ask to what extent permanent geographic proximity, defined, as co-location by the geography of innovation, is really necessary to benefit from spillovers when agents cooperate. It turns out that co-localisation is not a sufficient condition; geographic proximity is often required but it can be temporary. This condition must be linked with organisational proximity to be effective. Then, it appears that spillovers are not “in the air(s)” but in networks.Spillovers; Technological cooperation; Geographic proximity; Organisational proximity; A-spatial network;

French firms’ strategies for protecting their intellectual property.

In attempting to protect their innovations, firms can choose from a range of mechanisms, which may be either non-statutory (trade secrets, design complexity, and lead-time advantage over competitors) or statutory (patent, design registration, trademark, copyright). Yet, little is known about how firms do actually make their choices from among these different appropriability mechanisms. The aim of this paper is to determine how French firms’ use of intellectual property protection mechanisms relates to the type of innovation, the characteristics of the market sector in which they operate, the firms’ characteristics, and their human resources strategies. Our empirical model draws on four French databases covering the period 2001–2004. Our results show that the choice of a means of protection matters and emerges out of a complex strategy. Our results also reveal that the different statutory and non-statutory means of protection are complementary within their own categories but hardly so between categories.Intellectual property rights; Multivariate probit; Appropriability; Innovation; Human resources strategies;

Firms’ human capital, R&D and innovation: a study on French firms.

This article investigates the effects of human capital and technological capital on innovation. While the role of technological capital as measured by research and development (R&D) expenditure has been intensively investigated, few studies have been made on the effect of employee training on innovation. This article explores the relationship between innovation and firm employee training. Our methodological approach contributes to the literature in three ways. We propose various indicators of firm employee training. We build a count data panel with a long time-data series to deal with the issue of firms’ heterogeneity. We propose a dynamic analysis. Using dynamic count data models on French industrial firms over the period 1986–1992, we find positive and significant effects of R&D intensity and training on patenting activity. Whatever the indicators of training our results show that the firm employee training has a positive impact on technological innovation.Patents; R&D; Employee training; Count panel data; Linear feedback model;

Vocational Training and Innovation.

Human capital is considered as one of the main inputs in economic growth. Human capital can generate endogenous growth thanks to a continuous process of knowledge and externalities accumulation (Aghion and Howitt, 1998). In that context, this paper explores the relationship between innovation and vocational training. Our methodological approach allows to contribute to the literature in three manners. First, we propose different indicators of vocational training. Second, we build a count data panel with a long time data series. This deals with the issue of non-random selection and potentially with measurement error from short panels. Finally, we explicitly allow for endogeneity and fixed effects using GMM techniques. Estimations are made on a panel data set relative to French industrial firms over the period 1986-1992. Our results indicate that whatever the indicators, vocational training has a positive impact on the technological innovation.R&D; count panel data; training; patents; linear feedback model;

Innovation and training: a dynamic count data model.

This paper explores the relationship between innovation and vocational training. We consider a linear feedback model to explain the dynamics of count data processes relative to patenting activities, R&D and training expenditures. Estimations are made on a panel data set relative to French industrial rms over the period 1986-1992. Our results indicate that the vocational training have a positive impact on the technological innovation.count panel data; linear feedback model; patents; R&D; training;

The impact of ICT sophistication on geographically distant networks: the case of space physics as seen from France

This paper examines scientific collaboration between French public research teams and distant partners. We first analyse the role and the development of trust and then, the relation between the degree of sophistication of Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) and the constraint of geographical proximity. In that purpose, we present a typology of the different kinds of knowledge and a classification of technologies. A case study in the field of space physics allows us to confront our theoretical elements to real life. We study the evolution of ICT sophistication parallel to collaboration patterns. Finally, we give some recommendations for public funding of virtual networks.collaboratory, knowledge transfer, trust, ICT classification, space physics

Linking two Instruments for a Better Innovation Policy-Mix: the French Case of the National Research Agency and the Competitiveness Clusters.

Since 2004, investigations and debates have been carried out on the French research and innovation system. Policy-makers have tried to break with the traditional ‘colbertist’ state- centered model, which put emphasis on interventionism and state involvement. This system that was successful until the 80ies, seems unfit to the increasingly competitive and knowledge-driven economy. The French model is also challenged by the changes in the policy context, as new actors such as regions, and constraints such as the Lisbon agenda are framing policy-making and implementation in the arena of research and innovation policies. The new Law for research aims at reforming the organisation of the research and innovation system, mostly by creating new structures, at the governance level, such as the National Research Agency (ANR), and at the research and innovation production level, such as the Competitiveness Clusters. The aim of this paper is to provide a case study that illustrates empirically the challenges of the setting up of these two new structures, and their difficulties to combine their actions. This qualitative research highlights the need for coordination and communication to reduce uncertainties and redundancies. Our work illustrates that the new organisation of the research and innovation system consists of creating more and more structures, without thinking in terms of policy-mix. A policy-mix perspective, that is to say a combination and balance of the different instruments would provide a better coordination between the different actors of the system.Policy-mix; National Innovation system; Clusters; National Research Agency; governance;

Evaluating Cluster Policies: A Unique Model? Lessons To Be Drawn From a Comparison Between French and European Experiences.

Although there is a consensus concerning the need for public policy evaluation, there is no stable doctrine regarding the way such assessments should be carried out. Different models coexist or succeed one another; it is, for example, possible to schematically oppose a ballistic model of evaluation “of the action” to an emergent model of evaluation “in the action”. The aim of this article is to analyse the evolution in public policy evaluations and the difficulties inherent in them by studying the French cluster evaluation undertaken in 2008. This evaluation was planned from the beginning as a component of the cluster policy, with the aim of modifying the policy in the light of its initial results. We first put into perspective the doctrines and methodologies underpinning public policy evaluation in general and cluster evaluation in particular. We then study the procedures used in the French cluster evaluation, comparing them to four international cases (Germany, Belgium, Finland and Austria). The analysis is based on a detailed examination of documents relevant to the evaluation, on our empirical knowledge of the French clusters, and on discussions with territorial and national actors involved in the cluster policy. The article reveals the inherent difficulties in cluster evaluation processes. These difficulties are mostly related to the systemic, multi-actor and heterogeneous characteristics of the object “cluster”. Analysing the usage and the effects of the evaluation on the various actors allows us to conclude that cluster evaluation in France is a learning source for the progressive construction of a cluster doctrine and a doctrine of its management. The evaluation, grounded in an interactive approach, becomes part of a larger process, a knowledge process benefiting both the government and the local actors concerned. Integrated from the outset into the cluster management system, the evaluation becomes a tool amongst others; it is therefore less consistent with a model of objective, incontestable and independent knowledge production than with an instrument to help decision-makers forge their choices.Public policy; evaluation methodology; evaluation; cluster;

Comment les politiques de cluster sont-elles évaluées ? Une analyse comparative européenne

Dans ce volet de nos recherches sur l'évaluation des clusters, nous comparons quatre cas européens d'évaluation de clusters : Wallonie, Allemagne, Basse-Autriche et France. Nous développons d'abord une grille de lecture avec laquelle nous analysons ensuite ces différentes évaluations. Cette grille de lecture nous aide surtout à souligner les différences entre ces évaluations dans trois domaines: les objets de l'évaluation et l'imputabilité des résultats, la démarche et la méthodologie des évaluations, et les effets et usages des évaluations. En conclusion, à partir de ces cas empiriques, nous proposons de distinguer deux modèles idéaux typiques d'évaluation, qui combinent ces différentes caractéristiques de manière cohérente et renvoient à des usages très contrastés des évaluations : un modèle " économiste " et un modèle " gestionnaire "